文化转向论适用于什么翻译领域6篇文化转向论适用于什么翻译领域 文化转向与翻译教学研究 罗小华 【期刊名称】《宜春学院学报》 【年(卷),期】2010(032)007 【摘要】过程教学和结下面是小编为大家整理的文化转向论适用于什么翻译领域6篇,供大家参考。
篇一：文化转向论适用于什么翻译领域
文化转向与翻译教学研究
罗小华
【期刊名称】《宜春学院学报》
【年(卷),期】2010(032)007
【摘要】过程教学和结果教学是翻译教学主要的教学方式.语言翻译和翻译的语言也一直是翻译课教学的焦点.但译文和原文由于各自根植于不同的语言文化,不可能以总有对等物参照.翻译要适应文化的要求,适应该文化中不同群体的要求.文化意图及文化转向对翻译的影响和翻译处理在翻译教学中占有重要地位.
【总页数】3页(P155-156,167)
【作者】罗小华
【作者单位】丽水学院,外国语学院,浙江,丽水,323000
【正文语种】中文
【中图分类】H315.9
【相关文献】
1."文化转向"与非物质文化遗产外宣翻译——以黑龙江非物质文化遗产外宣翻译为例[J],刘春媛2.翻译策略运用与区域经济发展r——基于文化转向谈黑龙江非物质文化遗产翻译[J],邱俊杰;刘春媛;刘畅3.浅谈翻译研究文化转向——巴斯内特"文化翻译观"及其对当今翻译研究的影响[J],吴博4.翻译效应学视域下翻译研究的"文化转向"——翻译研究的千禧年还是渊薮[J],
王崧珍;刘瑞强5.双重视野下翻译研究文化转向的实践——从赵稀方《翻译与现代中国》谈起[J],李今
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篇二：文化转向论适用于什么翻译领域
翻译学文化转向的意义及对国内译学研究的影响
一、当代翻译研究中文化转向的渊源及其必然性
传统的翻译研究认为翻译仅仅是两种语言之间的相互转换，其研究的范围局限在语言内部。但是随着翻译学科的发展，特别是在20世纪70年代，翻译研究的范围伸向了文化这一广阔的空间。这一过程被称作翻译研究的文化转向。以色列学者佐哈尔提出了多元系统论，可以看作是翻译文化转向的萌芽。巴斯内特和勒菲弗尔发展了多元系统论，在80年代发表了一系列的从文化角度看待翻译的论文和专著，1992年勒菲弗尔又相继发表了《翻译、历史与文化论集》、《翻译、改写与文学名声的操控》和《翻译文学》三本书，正式提出了翻译研究的“文化转向”。
翻译的文化学派突破了语言学派专注于不同语言之间的对比、转换，而把翻译和社会、历史和文化联系起来。脱离文化研究的翻译理论研究不可能是全面可靠的翻译理论研究。世界已经进入了一个全球化的时代，不同文化之间的交流十分频繁，使得人们越来越关注跨文化交流这一议题。翻译研究向文化转向是自然且必然的。
二、翻译学文化转向的意义
(一)文化转向为翻译研究提供新视角
从文化层面上对翻译进行整体的思考,更注重翻译与译文社会的政治、文化、意识形态等的关系。在研究范式上，相比于语言学派规约性的微观研究，文化转向注重进行宏大的描述性研究,强调翻译研究的多元性和宽容度；从研究内容上讲，以译语为中心的研究视角颠覆了翻译界以往的陈规,跳出了传统翻译以信息或语义为翻译目标的桎梏，使译学研究融进文化研究，从语词文本转向文化语域。文化研究可以给翻译研究提供理论武器和观察视角,使译者超越单一的思维模式，因而得出的结论就更具有理论意义和学科意义，而不仅是解决几个具体的语言操作技巧性问题。
(二)文化转向给译本解读带来理论依据
翻译承担着文化解读和观念阐释及传承的功能，尤其是文学翻译中,原语和译语根植于不同的文化土壤,因此，翻译中要求传递的文化价值与信息也往往大相径庭，不可能产生与原作绝对对等的完美译作。文化本身对翻译提出了特定的要求，每一译本所处时代不同，语境不同,便要求产生顺应不同时代语境特定要求的译本，从而将整个翻译活动纳入动态的不断延展的体系之中。
(三)文化转向给翻译理论体系的构建以启示
利用翻译作为交流的工具,使翻译实践成为异质文化之间对话与交流的桥
梁。要建立特定的翻译理论体系，推广和丰富本国文化并将其发扬光大，将翻译理论研究置于更广阔的文化语境下讨论已成为每位译者义不容辞的责任。中国译学工作者应在大力引进和深入研究当代西方译论的同时，发掘中国传统译论精华，使中西翻译理论交汇融合,实现中西翻译理论的多元互补。
三、文化转向对国内译学研究的影响
中国的传统译论侧重于翻译标准的探讨，引进的外国译论又偏重于翻译的语言学理论，国内的翻译研究更多的还是停留在语言转换、翻译技巧和外语教学等语言研究层面。近年来，随着比较文学研究的深入，中国的译学研究开始从比较文学的角度来研究翻译，从文化转向入手，为国内译学研究带来新的思路，对中国翻译理论体系构建有积极的影响。
(一)在翻译学研究上,一方面,我们要继续翻译西方文化的优秀成果，避免单一地译介、复述、阐释国外的相关理论；另一方面要加大文化输出，大力向外译介本国的优秀文化。以我国的译介作品为例，在众多出版的翻译作品中，英译汉的作品明显超过汉译英的作品，这对于中国文化的输出和传播是不利的。让更多人了解中国文化就需得借助翻译实现，通过翻译，寻找民族自身的“文化身份”，故应将研究重心从“原文”移到“译文”。译学的建构应以民族语言文化为立足点，同时运用西方科学、研究方法对传统译论进行改造和升华，要重视本土、洋为中用。
(二)在翻译实践上，要以平等的态度善待各种不同的语言。中西语言文化传统差异很大。我们要运用语言学中的关联顺应理论分析翻译过程中语言使用的规律，采取不同的翻译策略。翻译西方文本时不一定要亦步亦趋，不敢做任何变动，而应以批判的态度取其精华，去其糟粕。面对文化转向，要持开放平等、兼收并蓄的正确态度。应辩证地对待文化转向，充分认识其积极意义，同时要警惕文化翻译对翻译研究的负面影响，避免翻译研究丧失其独立学科的本体地位。
(三)在翻译教学中，利用各种外在条件，使翻译课更能体现出教师和学生对翻译、对文化的理解。教师合理利用多媒体网络幻灯和课件，增加学生对英汉两种语言内在机制的比较，了解外在制约因素，在此基础上发展创新的翻译教学模式。这样更能激发学生兴趣，提高翻译教学的功效性。这种氛围有助于学生的翻译意识向系统化、多元化信息技术化迈进，帮助其形成正确的翻译理念。学生也会对翻译的性质和基本概念有比较全面的了解，形成正确的翻译习惯，加强翻译意识，获得较强的翻译能力。
越来越多的学者开始注意到“文化转向”带来的问题，力图融合中西方译论的精华，深化探索干涉语言使用与语言转换机制的各个层面的因素，相信这样的译学才是合理的，有发展前途的。翻译文化转向揭开了翻译研究新的一页，同时也展现了翻译教学新的、更为广阔的研究领域。
参考文献:
[1]Bassmett,Susan&AndreLefevere.Translation,Historyandculture.LondonandNewYork:PrinterPublishers,1990.
[2]Lefevere,Andre.Translation,Rewriting,andtheManipulationofLiteraryFame.LondonandNewYork:Routledge,1992.
[3]潘文国.当代西方的翻译学研.中国翻译，2002(1/2/3)：31-34/34-37/18-22.[4]孙会军，郑庆珠.译论研究中的文化转向.中国翻译,2000,(5).[5]王洪涛,翻译学的学科建设与文化转向.上海:上海译文出版社,2008.[6]王宁,翻译研究的文化转向.北京:清华大学出版社,2009.
篇三：文化转向论适用于什么翻译领域
文化转向之后的翻译理论与翻译实践
程悦;王少凯
【期刊名称】《沈阳教育学院学报》
【年(卷),期】2013(015)004
【摘要】分析了翻译理论界文化转向的特征,认为翻译学领域文化转向后翻译理论呈现出多元纷繁的态势,也使翻译理论与翻译实践的关系发生了重大变化.在新形势下,翻译实践者不能盲目地生搬硬套某种翻译理论,而是应从常识出发,理性地借鉴这些理论,并以文化视角来看待源语言与目的语之间的“异”与“同”.
【总页数】4页(P568-571)
【作者】程悦;王少凯
【作者单位】沈阳大学外国语学院,辽宁沈阳110041;沈阳大学外国语学院,辽宁沈阳110041
【正文语种】中文
【中图分类】H059
【相关文献】
1.谈对等翻译理论文化转向在翻译教学中的转换[J],崔宇2.文化转向之后的翻译理论与翻译实践[J],程悦;王少凯;3.翻译理论基础下的英语教学实践——评《专用英语翻译理论与实践》[J],吉冰冰;4.翻译理论与翻译实践——翻译理论的基本概念和翻译标准[J],江山;刘果
5.翻译理论的实践价值──从习语翻译看翻译理论对翻译实践的指导价值[J],靳海林
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篇四：文化转向论适用于什么翻译领域
CulturalTurn
In
TranslationofBusinessEnglish
CaoTing
ShanghaiMaritimeUniversity
June,2005
摘要随着全球化的发展，世界各国之间的经济文化交流日趋频繁。翻译作为交流手段和媒介在这一过程中发挥了至关重要的作用。本文拟以翻译中的文化转向为基础，选取商务英语翻译为视角，试图分析国际商务英语翻译中的文化转向。本论文结合翻译学的研究成果和商务文化的实例进行对比研究，来探索一条商务活动中成功实现文化转向的途径。本论文共分三部分。第一部分由三章组成:第一章简要介绍了翻译这一综合学科的发展历史及在全球化背景下所赋予的新的内涵。第二章围绕文化这一主题，分析了其内涵、特点、作用等，并引入了文化转向这一新颖的概念，包括它的由来及在翻译界的深入发展。第三章辩证地分析了翻译与文化的关系;其中涉及到翻译、文化与语言三者之间的相互关系。整个第一部分为本论文做了坚实的理论铺垫，使研究在这个基础上顺利进入到商务英语翻译中文化转向的探讨。第二部分是论文的核心部分，由三章组成。第一章对国际商务英语做了简要介绍，包括商务英语的定义、特点等。第二章则深入到国际商务英语的翻译这一话题中，主要分析了国际商务英语翻译的重要性、实用性及其适用标准。第三章具体探讨了国际商务英语翻译中的文化转向问题，即在跨文化交际的背景下，商务英语翻译必须适应不同的文化背景，从而实现从源语到译语的顺利转换过程。论文的第三部分是结论。作者重申了翻译和文化的关系，再次点明主题一商务英语翻译中的文化转向.硕士研究生:曹婷指导教师:范苗福副教授关键词:翻译，文化转向，国际商务英语
Abstract
Withthedevelopmentofglobalization,exchangesofeconomyandcultureamongdifferentcountriesarebecomingmoreandmorefrequent.Translation,asatoolandbridgeofcommunication,playsasignificantroleinthiscourse.Basedonculturalturnintranslation,thisthesischoosesbusinessEnglishtranslationastheangelofview,makingatentativeexplorationofculturalturnintranslatingbusinessEnglish.Theaimistofindanaccesstosmoothcommunicationindifferentculturalbackgrounds.
Thethesisiscomposedofthreeparts.InPartOne,therearethreechapters.Toclearuptheground,thefirstchaptergivesageneralintroductiontothiscomprehensivesubject一translationaswellasitsnewconnotationinthebac比roundofglobalization.Focusingontopicofculture,thesecondchapteranalyzesconnotations,characteristicsandfunctionsofcultureandintroducesanovelconcept一culturalturnintotheresearch.Thethirdchaptercarriesouttheexplorationofthedialecticrelationshipbetweentranslationandculture,includingtheirrelationshipwithlanguage.
BasedonthefirmtheoriesofPartOne,thesecondpart一thecoreofthispapergoestotheresearchofbusinessEnglishtranslationnaturallyandsmoothly.Itconsistsofthreechapters.InChapterOne,abriefintroductiontointernationalbusinessEnglishisgiven,suchasdefinition,featuresandsoon.ThesecondchapterdiscussesdeeplythetranslationofbusinessEnglish,mainlyanalyzingtheinevitabilityandsignificanceofbusinessEnglishtranslationaswellasitscriteriaoftranslation.ChapterThreefocusesonthekeytopicofthepaper一culturalturnintranslationofbusinessEnglish,aimingatexploringhowbusinessEnglishtranslationisadaptedtodifferentculturalbackgrounds,thussuccessfullyaccomplishingthetransferfromsourcelanguagetotargetlanguage.
Astheconclusionofthepaper,PartThreereiteratestherelationshipbetweentranslationandculture,againpointingoutthattranslationofbusinessEnglishistakingaculturalturn.KeyWords:translation,culturalturn,internationalbusinessEnglish
CulturalTurn
inTranslationofInternationalBusinessEnglish
CulturalTurn.............................................，.……，.…，.，...........……1Introduction...........……，.....................................................，......................……，.…3PART1TranslationandCulture....……，..…，..........................…，....……S
ChapterIIntroductiontoTranslationofEnglish.，.......……，..................…51.1.1DevelopmentofTranslationstudy..............……，…，.……51.1.2ConceptsofTranslation.…，........…................................……，...……7
ChapterIICultureandCulturalTurn..............……，..............……101.2.1IntroductiontoCulture.…，........……，................…，.……101.2.1.1DefinitionsandConnotations.........………，........……101.2.1.2FoundationsofCulture...................…，..............……131.2.1.3CharacteristicsofCulture.......……，二，.....................................161.2.1.4ThreeLevelsofCulture................................................……181.2.1.5BasicFunctionsofCulture.，.……，........……，....…...............……201.2.2ChineseandWesternCultures..……，.，.……，.......，...........……211.2.2.1ChineseCulture...........……，..……......……，……，...……211.2.2.2WesternCulture...................……，........….................……，..…241.2.3CulturalTurn............................................……，................……271.2.3.1IntroductiontoCulturalTurn..............，................……，.，……271.2.3.1.1TheOriginandImplicationoftheCulturalTurn......................……271.2.3.1.2CulturalTurnandLinguisticTurn..……，.................................……301.2.3.2CulturalTurninTranslation.........................................................311.2.3.2.1InevitabilityofCultureStudyinTranslation.....，......……311.2.3.2.2.ImportanceofCulturalSensitivity..........................................……331.2.3.2.3ThirdCulture...……，.，..................................…‘.…，二34
ChapterIIITranslationandCulture.......……................................……，…351.3.1RelationshipbetweenTranslationandCulture.....……，.................……351.3.1.1TranslationandCulture.，........................................……，.，351.3.1.2CultureandLanguage二，.…，..................…，...........……，……361.3.1.3Translation,CultureandLanguage................................…，391.3.2TwoAnglesofView...........................……，.，..................……411.3.3TwoSteps一TranslationinTermsofCulture........................……421.3.3.1Understanding.......……，....................................……421.3.3.2Expressing...……，..…，.......……，二，...............................……44
PARTIICulturalTurninTranslatingBusinessEnglish..............................................46ChapterIAGeneralIntroductiontoInternationalBusinessEnglish.............................……462.1.1DefinitionofInternationalBusinessEnglish..…，，......……....……，.…462.1.2FeaturesofInternationalBusinessEnglish...........................……，..…46ChapterIITranslationofInternationalBusinessEnglish............……..........……472.2.1ImportanceofTranslationofInternationalBusinessEnglish........................……472.2.2PresentSituationofTranslationofInternationalBusinessEnglish.......................48
2.2.3InternationalBusinessisaCourseofTranslation..........……492.2.4CriteriaofInternationalBusinessEnglishTranslation.…，...……502.2.4.1"4E's"Criteria...................................……，..…，二502.2.4.2RelatedTranslationCriteria......,.............................,...532,2.4.2.1FunctionalEquivalence.................................……532.2.4.2.2"SemanticTranslation"and"CommunicativeTranslation"...，二54ChapterIIICulturalTurninTranslationofInternationalBusinessEnglish.………54
2.3.1BusinessandCross-culturalCommunication.，..........…，……，..…552.3.1.1Cross-CulturalDifferencesinCommunication........................，…572.3.1.1.1VerbalCommunication.……，..……，.........……......……572.3.1,1.2NonverbalCommunication..............................，…，……，582.3.1.1.3Time............................................……，.....……，.592.3.1.1.4Space二，..........................................、.、，.602.3.1.1.5Colour二，......……，...……，...........………，.…612.3.1.1.6Number..............……，..........……，…，.622.3.1.1.7Animal............……，...........................................642.3.1.1.8Religion.....……，.....................................................……，…甲二682.3.1.2CausesofCross-CulturalDifference.......................................682.3.2ImpactofCultureuponCross-culturalBusiness......……，..............……，…692.3.2.1CultureInfluencesDecision-makinginAdvertisement......……，.，二，692.3.2.2ImpactsofCulturalDifferencesonInternationalBusinessNegotiation.....722.3.2.2,1IntroductionofBusinessNegotiation............…722.3.2.2.2CulturalimpactsBusinessNegotiation............................................732.3.2CulturalAdaptation....,........................................................……75PartIIIConclusion..................................................................................……79Bibliography.........................................................................................................……80
Introduction
Translation,asabridgeofcommunication,playsasignificantroleincross-culturalcommunicationoftoday'sglobalizationprocess.Withovertwothousandyears'development,ithasbecomeacomprehensivesubjectrelatedtomanyothersubjectssuchaslinguistics,culturology,psychology,aestheticsandsoon.Theprevioustwo-decadeshavewitnessedaworldwideboomintranslationstudyandresearch.Todaycomesmufti-theoreticalperiod,whentranslationisnolongerrestrainedbyseveralstandardsbutismakingitswaytowideprospects.
Changesintranslationstudyinshort,reflectlargerculturalandpoliticalchanges.Itisinthisprocessthatculturalturncomesintobeingintranslationfield.InthebookPrimitiveCulture,EnglishAnthropologistEdwardB.升fordefinescultureas"thatcomplexwholewhichincludesknowledge,beliefs,art,law,morals,customs,andanyothercapabilitiesandhabitsacquiredbymanasamemberofsociety".In1990,SusanBassnettandAndreLefevere,twotoweringtranslationstudyscholars,famouslyannouncedwhathadbeenunderwayforsometime:the"culturalturn"intranslationstudy.Thetwoenvisagedthat"neithertheword,northetext,buttheculturebecomestheoperational`unit'oftranslation(LefevereandBassnett1990:8).Sincethen,“culturalturn"hasoftenappearedininternationaltranslationstudy,whichindicatesaturnoftranslationsstudytowardsculture,ashocktowards“linguisticturn”.
Cultureandculturalequivalencehavebecomekeywordsintranslation.、viewtranslationfromtheviewofculture、。becomingahotterandmorepopulartopic.
InternationalbusinessEnglish,onebranchofEnglishforSpecificPurposes,coversawiderangeofindustriesandfields,suchasfinancialEnglish,advertisingEnglish,accountingEnglishandsoon.Asacourseofcross-culturalcommunication,translationofbusinessEnglishalsotakesaturntowardsculture.Whenamanisdoingbusinesswithforeignpartners,heishavingacross-culturalcommunication,whichfocusesonfindingthewaytoadapttodifferentculturesandachievingculturalequivalence,sothatthebusinesswillgoonsuccessfully.
Inconclusion,anapplicableandflexibleapproachtoculturalequivalenceincross-culturalbusinesscommunicationisachieved.
PARTITranslationandCulture
ChapterIIntroductiontoTranslationofEnglish
1.1.1DevelopmentofTranslationstudy
Withthedevelopmentofglobalizationandculturalexchanges,translation,asabridgeofcommunication,playsamoresignificantroleincross-culturalcommunication.Theprevioustwodecadeshavewitnessedaworldwideboomintranslationstudyandresearch.Withovertwothousandyears'development,translationitselfhasbecomeancomprehensivebutindependentsubjectrelatedtomanyothersubjectssuchaslinguistics,culturology,psychologyandsoon.Translationstudyhasachievedinstitutionalauthorityintheproliferationofspecialistpublications,academictrainingprogrammes,professionalassociationsandconferencecircuits.Ithasestablisheditsprofoundtheoreticalframewithawidepracticecoveringvariousfields.Accordingtotheresearchoftranslationtheoreticians,translationstudyhasgonethroughthreemajorphasesinitsdevelopmentintoanacademicdiscipline:thepre-theoretical,thelinguistics-guided,andthemulti-theoreticalperiod,amongwhich"thelinguistics-guided"periodhasprevailedforalongtime,whentranslationtheoreticiansandtranslatorsallfocusedonresearchoflinguisticlevel.However,duringthepasthistoryoftranslationdevelopment,translationstudyitselfhasalsoexperiencedsomechanges,especiallythechangesontheviewofresearch,suchasfromlinguisticviewtoculturalview.
Meanwhile,Withthedevelopmentofglobalizationandduetoitsownnatures,translationstudyhascomeofageandhasbeenactivelyinvolvedinglobalproblemssuchasmultimediacommunication,migration,tourism,themultilingualormonolingualnationstate,postcolonialismandsoon.Sotodaycomesthemulti-theoreticalperiod,whentranslationisnolongerrestrainedbyseveralstandardsbutchangestotakeawaytoawiderforeground.
Thechangesintranslationstudyinshort,reflectlargerculturalandpoliticalchanges.Translationisnolongersimplyanarrowlinguistictransferbuttacklessomeofthemoreimportantculturalproblemsoftheday:feminism,theconsequencesofcolonialismintheinterpretationofdiversecultures,theconflictbetweenminorityrightsandmainstreamculturaltrendsandsoon.Thusinthechangesoftranslationstudy,theroleoftranslatorhasalsobeenchanged.Translatorshavebecomeactiveparticipantsinthesesocialmovementsand,astheirskillsareincreasinglyneededintheexpandingglobalvillage,theirpresenceisbecomingindispensable.Thisraisesawarenessofthesocialpowerfultranslatorsactingaslinguisticandculturalbrokers,mediatorsandnegotiators,aswellasimage-makersanddecision-makersininterculturaland
internationalaffairs.SoSusanBassnett,atoweringtranslationstudyscholarhasacomment
onpresenttranslationstudy“Therehasneverbeenabettertimetostudytranslation.Frombeingamarginalactivityoutsideoflinguistics,attheedgesofliterarystudies…Translationisnowbeingreconsidered,anditsfundamentalimportanceininterculturaltransferprocessesisbecomingmoreapparent."
1.1.2ConceptsofTranslation
Havingexperiencedsolongahistory,translationitselfhasestablisheditsownframeoftheory.Therearenumerouswaystodefinetranslation.Manytranslationtheoreticiansandtranslatorshavebeentryingtoassignadefinitionoftranslation,butallofthedefinitionsrunacommonidea一translationisanactivitydeeplyrootedinculture.HereIparticularlyrefertotranslationbothfromEnglishtoChineseandfromChinesetoEnglish,widelyincludingtranslation,interpretation,andothermodesofculturaltransferincross-culturalcommunication.
AccordingtothefamousEnglishlinguistGeDffreyLeech,translationistofindawaytoexpressthesenseofawordinanotherlanguage.
Atranslationwillbeanytargetlanguagetext,whichispresentedorregardedassuchwiththetargetsystemitself,onwhatevergrounds.ThisisadefinitionoftranslationfromProfessorGideonToury,representativeofDescriptiveTranslationstudy.
IntheopinionofMildredLarson,translationconsistsoftransferringthemeaningofthesourcelanguagetothereceptorlanguage.Languageincludesbothverballanguageandnonverballanguage,sointhispaper,translationistreatedinawidescale,includingverballanguagetranslationandnon-verballanguagetranslation.
FamousAmericanlinguist,alsotranslationtheoreticianEugene.A.Nidabelievesthatthetranslationwecallinthetargetlanguagereferstotheinformationreproducingtheoriginaltextbyusingtheclosestandthemostnaturalequivalencefromsemantemetostyle.WhatNidastateshereiswidelyacceptedininternationaltranslationfield,forthisstatementnotonlyemphasizesmostcloselybutalsomostnaturally"toproducetheinformationoftheoriginaltext".Thatistosay,thetranslatedtextshouldbefaithfulnotonlytotheoriginaltext,butalsotothewritingstylesothatitisfavorableforthereadersofthetranslatedtexttoachievethesameeffectasthereadersoftheoriginaltext,whichisalsotheaimoftranslation.ThisisalsoNida'sfamoustranslationapproach"FunctionalEquivalence",whichhasagreatsignificanceindirectingourtranslation,asinthispaper,translationofinternationalbusinessEnglish.
Fromtherepresentativedefinitionsoftranslationmentionedabove,wecaninferthat:
Translationistoexpressthemeaningorthesenseofaword,whichexactlyreferstothe
senseinacertainculturalbackground.Translationisanactivity,acreativeactivitywithtransferof
informationtochangetheformoflanguageonthebasisoforiginaltext.Translationisintroducingonecultureintoanotherwhiletransferringinformation.
Inthisviewtranslationiscloselyrelatedtoculturalaspectorculturallevel.Actuallyitisacourseofculturetransfer.Itisregardedhereasageneralcategorywhichonlytakesonspecificcontentswithinparticularcultures.Inotherwords,thetheoreticalnotionadoptedisofafunctionalnaturewhereasitsmanifoldrealizations,whichmayvaryacrossculturesaswellaswithinanyoneofthem,areregardedasitscontext-boundvariations.
Sogenerallyspeaking,translationisnotsimplyamatterofseekingotherwordswithsimilarmeaning,butratheramatteroffindingappropriatewaysofsayingthingsinanotherlanguage.Differentlanguagesmayusedifferentlinguisticforms,buttheseformsareonlyoneoftheaspectsofthedifferencebetweenthetwolanguagesystems.Whatatranslatorfinallyshoulddoistotransferthemeaning,orfurthertheculture,oftheoriginaltextintotargetlanguageduringthecourseoftranslatinglanguage一theformofcertainculture.
Actuallytranslationisalsoanatmosphereofculture.Todaytheconceptionoftranslationisnolongerapurelytechnicaltranslationfromonelanguagetoanother,butanewapproachoftranslationfromoneformtoanother,oneculturetoanother,withlanguageasthemedium.Conceptsoftranslationhavedevelopedalongsideandaspartofarangeofdifferentmodesofimportingandexportingtextsandotherculturalproductsinvariouspartsoftheworld.Theemergenceinrecentdecadesofabroadlybaseddisciplineoftranslationstudieshascreatedaframeworkthatenablesustostudytheseconceptsandpracticesintheirhistoricalandculturalcontexts.
"Translationis,ofcourse,arewritingofanoriginaltext.Rewritingscanintroducenewconcepts,newgenres,newdevices,andthehistoryoftranslationisthehistoryalsoofliteraryinnovation,oftheshapingpowerofonecultureuponanother.Butrewritingcanalsorepressinnovation,distortandcontain,andinanageofeverincreasingmanipulationofallkinds,thestudyofthemanipulativeprocessesofliteratureasexemplifiedbytranslationcanhelpustowardagreaterawarenessoftheworldinwhichwelive."(GeneralEditors'Preface,"RoutledgeTranslationstudy",Routledge:2000)
ChapterIICultureandCulturalTurn
1.2.1IntroductiontoCulture
Theword"culture"isanalienwordcomingfromLatin"cultura",whoseearliestbasicmeaningwas"cultivation,planting,crop".Withthedevelopmentofsocietyanditsculture,themeaningof"culture"haschangedandnowithasmanyextendedmeanings.
1.2.1.1DefinitionsandConnotations
Forsomepeople,culturereferstoanappreciationofgoodliterature,music,art,andfood.Forbiologists,itislikelytobeacolonyofbacteriaorothermicroorganismsgrowinginanutrientmediuminalaboratorydish.However,foranthropologistsandotherbehavioralscientists,"cultureisthefullrangeoflearnedhumanbehaviorpatterns".Thisdefinitionofculture,whichisconsideredasthemostauthoritativeone,wasfirstlybroughtforwardbythepioneerEnglishAnthropologistEdwardB.Tylorinhisbook,"PrimitiveCulture",publishedin1871.Tylorpointedoutthatcultureis"thatcomplexwholewhichincludesknowledge,beliefs,art,law,morals,customs,andanyothercapabilitiesandhabitsacquiredbymanasamemberofsociety.”Itdefinescultureasa"complexwhole"andpointsoutsuchawiderangethatculturecovers.
InMeritStudentEncyclopedia,cultureisdefinedastheentirewayoflife.InAmericanEncyclopedia,cultureisdefinedasthecomplexwholeofideasandthingsproducedbymenintheirhistoricalexperience.FamousAmericanscholarEugene.A.Nidadefinescultureas"thetotalityofbeliefsandpracticesofasociety.(Language,CultureandTranslating,p.105)
NotedsociologyprofessorRolandRobertsonwrites:"Cultureconsistsofallthesharedproductofhumansociety."Thismeanscultureincludesnotonlymaterialthingssuchascities,organizations,andschools,butalsointangiblethingssuchasideas,customs,familypatterns,andlanguages.Inaword,culturereferstotheentirewayoflifeofasociety.Itisthesystemofsharedbeliefs,values,customs,behaviors,andartifactsthatthemembersofsocietyusetocopewiththeirworldandwithoneanother,andthataretransmittedfromgenerationtogenerationthroughlearning.Ithidesmuchmorethanitrevealsandwemusttryourbesttounderstandthoseithidesfromthoseitreveals.Toexploreculture,wemustexplorebothitrevealsandithides.Anditismoredifficulttostudywhatithides.Mostlythisisachievedthroughcommunication,variouswaysofcommunication,especiallycross-culturalcommunication,suchasartdisplay,businessactivityandsoon.Asforcross-culturalcommunication,actuallyitisacourseoftranslation.
Finally,asummaryismadeclearlyfromtheabovedefinitionsof
culturethatcultureisasynthesis,a"whole"and"totality"ofacertainsociety.Cultureisapartofsocialelementandcloselyrelatedtosociety.Thusitmustberelativetonature,forsocietyandnatureareinseparable.Onanotherangelofview,cultureispeople'shistoricalorsocialexperience,whichistheoutcomeofhumanbeing'sactivity,especiallyandmostimportantlytheirlabor.Withouthumanbeing'sactivityorlabor,therewillbenoculture.Allculturesarefromhuman'slaborworkandaredevelopinginhuman'slaborwork.Itisnodoubtthathuman'slaborbelongstopartofnature.Soculturemusthavesomethingtodowithnature.Inmyopinion,thisiswhyboth"culture"and"nature"have"ture"attheendofthem.Inconclusion,cultureiscloselyconnectedwiththethree-levelreality:nature,societyandpeople.
Thereareverylikelythreelayersorlevelsofculturethatarepartoflearnedbehaviorpatternsandperceptions.口Culturaltraditions一thebo勿ofculturaltraditionsthatdistinguisha
specificsociety,suchasChinesebelieveinConfucianism.Sub-culturaltraits一commonidentity,foodtraditions,weddingtraditions,dialectorlanguage,andotherculturaltraitsthatcomefromacommonancestralbackgroundandexperience.Culturaluniversals一learnedbehaviorpatternssharedbyallofhumanitycollectively,nomatterwherepeopleliveintheworld.Examplesoftheseuniversaltraitsincludecommunicatingwithaverballanguage,raisingchildreninsomesortoffamilysetting,havingaconceptofprivacy,distinguishingbetweengoodandbadbehavior,etc.
1.2.1.2FoundationsofCulture
Knowledge,beliefs,art,morals,customs,allthesearecontentsofculture.Peopleacquiredthemthroughsocialcommunicationineverydayliving.Oncecultureisacquired,itmostlywillstaywithyouforawholelife.Andthenyoutransmitittoyouroffspringorotherrelatedpeople.Duringthiscoursecultureitselfischanging,however,thereissomethingthatstaysinculturefirmly,whichisregardedasthefoundationofaculture一itsvaluesandnorms.
Formally,avalueisdefinedasanenduringbeliefaboutwhatsocietybelievestobegoodornot.AccordingtothefamouspsychologistMiltonRokeach,valueis"alearnedorganizationofrulesformakingchoicesandforresolvingconflicts",whichisconsideredasnormativeandteachespeoplewhatisuseful,good,right,wrong,whatisexpectedfor,whatisrequiredorforbidden,whattostrivefor,howtoliveourlifeandthingsalike.Itisnotthereportofactualconductbutisactuallyasystemofcriteriabywhichconductisjudged.Indifferentcultures,valuesmayvarysignificantly.One'sproperactionsinoneculturecanbeseenaswronginamoralsenseinanotherculture.Forexample,Americansregard
nepotismasimmoral,whilemostHispanicculturesregarditasaduty.Butasforacertainsociety,althoughdifferentpeoplehavedifferentvalues,therearestillvaluesthattendtopermeateculture,whicharecalledculturalvalues.Culturalvaluesaswellassocialvalueswhicharereflectedinpoliticalandeconomicalsystem,areexactlythevalueswemeanincross-culturalcommunicationhere.Theyarebroad-based,enduring,andrelativelystable.Theycangettranslatedintoactionandgettransmittedfromgenerationtogeneration.Anunderstandingofculturalvalueshelpsusappreciatethebehaviorofbothotherpeopleaswellasourselves.Inthisview,cultureprovidesorientation.Generallyspeaking,aparticulargroupreactsinthesamewaytoagivenstimulus.Thus,understandingaculturecanhelptodeterminehowgroupmembersmightreactinvarioussituations.
Usuallyvaluescanbeclassifiedintothreelevels:primary,secondaryandtertiary.Primaryvaluesarethemostimportant,whichspecifywhatisworththesacrificeofhumanlife.Forexample,democracyandtheprotectionofoneselfaretheprimaryvaluesintheUnitedStates.ThereliefofthepainandsufferingofothersaswellasthesecuringofmaterialpossessionsaresecondaryvaluesintheUnitedStates.Tertiaryvaluesareatthebottomofourhierarchy,whichexactlyarehospitalitytoguestsandcleanlinessintheUnitedStates.
Normsaresocialrulesandguidelinesthatprescribeandruleappropriatebehaviorinparticularsituations.Normsshapetheactionsofpeopletowardoneanotherandguidetherelationshipofpeople.Theyaresocialconventionssuchasappropriatedress,socialetiquette,tablemannersandthelike.Theyaresometimesconsideredasfolkwaysormores.Butthedifferenceisthat,folkwaysarethewaysinwhichpeopleareexpectedtobehave,butviolationsofthemarenotnormallyaseriousmatter;whilemores,whichhavegreatsignificancethanfolkways,areseenascentraltothefunctioningofasocietyandtoitssociallife,suchasprohibitionsagainsttheft.Theviolationofmorescanbeexpectedtobringseriousretribution.Thetwofoundationsofaculture一itsvaluesandnorms,aredifferentlycalled"jiazhi"and"guifan"inChinese.Valuesestablishtheculturebedrockofasocietyandprovidethecontextwithinwhichasociety'snormsareformedandjustified.Thesocialstructureandreligioncanbeinfluencedbyitsvaluesandnorms,andfurtherbycultureitself.Itisalsoimportanttopaymuchattentiontovaluesandnormsofdifferentculturalbackgrounds,forthesearewhatpeopledeeplyhaveinmind.Violationsofthemwillmakeafailureofcross-culturalcommunication.ExamplesofpracticefailureduetoviolationofvaluesandnormswillbegiveninthethirdchapterofPartTwo.1.2.1.3CharacteristicsofCulture
Broadlyspeaking,cultureinasocietyconsistsofdominantculture,countercultureandsubculture.Dominantcultureisthemostpowerful
cultureamongthethreeandisacceptedbymostpeopleinacertainsociety.Itisalsocalledumbrellacultureormainstreamculture.Itsoppositeiscounterculture,whichalsohasvaluesandnormslikethedominantcultureandisinconflictwiththedominantone.Besides,therealsoexistsasubculture.Subcultureisaculturalsubgroupdifferentiatedbystatus,ethnicbackground,residence,religion,orotherfactorsthatfunctionallyunifythegroupandactcollectivelyoneachmember.Beforewebeginourexaminationofcharacteristicsofculture,Ihavetomakeonethingclearthattheword"culture"inthefollowingreferstothedominantcultureinonesociety.
Nomatterhowmanydefinitionsofculturewehave,theystillenjoythecommoncharacteristicsofcultureasfollows:a.Cultureislearned.b.Cultureisshared.c.Cultureistransmittedfromgenerationtogeneration.d.Cultureisbasedonsymbols.e.Cultureissubjecttochange.f.Cultureisintegrated.gCultureisethnocentric.h.Cultureisadaptive.
Culturetakesrootincertainsocietyorcertainnationastheentirewayoflife.Itisnotinnate,soitispossibleforapersontolearnanewculture.Thefoundationofculture-itsvaluesandnorms,asmentionedabove,isdeeplyembeddedinsocietyaswellasinpeople'sconsciousness.Itcontainsvisiblematerials,whichareconsideredasthemarkofculturesuchasfood,architect,aswellasinvisibleconceptssuchasideas,beliefs.Tounderstandculture,weneedalongcoursetolearn,fortheessenceofcultureisneitherrevealedonthesurfacenoreasyforotherstoget.Culturecanberegardedasakindofmarkforacertainnation,becausedifferentnationshavedifferentcultures.What'smore,manynationsareproudoftheirrespectivetraditionalcultures,suchastheConfucianismofChina,andpursuittofreedomofAmerica.Thefocusofcultureiswhatissharedbymembersofaparticulargroup.Therefore,itispossibletoidentifyandstudythebehavioralpatternsof
differentgroups.Sosimplyspeaking,cultureisethnocentric.Itishandeddownfromgenerationtogeneration,sothatanationcankeepitscultureinitswholesystem.Althoughvariousfacetsofculturecanbeexaminedinisolation,theyshouldbeunderstoodinthecontextofthewhole.Acultureneedstobestudiedasacompleteentity.However,developingwiththesociety,cultureissubjecttochange.Thesechangesmainlyresultfromdevelopmentofothersocialelements,transmissionbetweengenerationsaswellasculturalexchangesbetweendifferentnations.
Masteryofthesesevencharacteristicsofculturewillhelppeopleget
abetterunderstandingofculture,includingtherelationshipbetweencultureandlanguage,cultureandcommunication,andcultureandsociety.
1.2.1.4ThreeLevelsofCulture
InEdwardSchein'sclassicbookOrganizationalCultureandLeadersh护，hedefinesthecultureofagroupas“apatternofsharedbasicassumptionsthatthegrouplearnedasitsolveditsproblemsofexternaladaptationandinternalintegration,thathasworkedenoughtobeconsideredvalid,andtherefore,tobetaughttonewmembersasthecorrectwaytoperceive,thinkandfeelinrelationtothoseproblems".Sinceculturemustbelongtoacertaingroupororganization,EdwardScheintreatscultureasorganizationalcultureanddividesorganizationalcultureintothreelevels.
I.Artifacts:these"artifacts"areatthesurface;thoseaspects,"suchasdress",canbeeasilydiscerned,yetarehardtounderstand.
II.Espousedvalues:beneathartifactsare"espousedvalues"whichareconsciousstrategies,goalsandphilosophies.
III.Basicassumptionsandvalues:thecoreoressenceofcultureisrepresentedbythebasicunderlyingassumptionsandvalues,whicharedifficulttodiscernbecausetheyexistatalargelyunconsciouslevel.Yet,theyprovidethekeytounderstandingw勿thingshappenthewaytheydo.Thebasicassumptionsformarounddeeperdimensionsofhumanexistencesuchasthenatureofhumans,humanrelationshipsandactivity,realityandtruth.Thefollowingtableisaclearillustrationofthethreelevelsofculture.
1.2.1.5BasicFunctionsofCulture
Wewerebornnotknowingwhatclothestowear,whatfoodstoeat,whatgamestoplay,whatgodstoworshipaswellashowtodothings，suchashowtodealwithothers.Itisculturethattellsustheway.Ittellsushowtodotherightthingsinacertainsociety,whichaccountsforpeople'sdifferentbehaviorsindifferentsocieties.
Astheentirewayofthewholesociety,thecontentsofculturebothvisibleandinvisiblemakeuphuman'slife.Nowithasevolvedtoapointthatculturecancompletelymeetpeople'sthreeneeds:
Basicneeds(food,shelter,andphysicalprotection);Derivedneeds(organizationofwork,distributionoffood,defense,socialcontrol);Integrativeneeds(psychologicalsecurity,socialharmony,purposeinlife).Therefore,cultureplaysawideandsignificantroleinhuman'slifeaswellashumansociety.Withsuchawidth,itisconnectedwithhumansocietyeverywhenaswellaseverywhere.Theabovetalksaboutthefunctionsofcultureintermsofmeetinghuman'sneeds.Wecanalsosummarizefunctionsofcultureintermsofitsrelationshipwithhuman'sbehavior,forculturecomesfromhuman'sbehaviorandreflectsit.Cultureshapesbehavior;Cultureprovidesastandardbywhichweevaluateothers'behavior;Culturegivesmeaningtoeventsoracts;
Cultureallowsforcommunicationofeventsoracts;Cultureprovidesboundarymaintenance.
1.2.2ChineseandWesternCultures
ThecivilizationofChinabroughtlighttotheFarEastandtothewholeAsia,asGreecethought,thecornerofEuropeancivilization,broughtlighttothewholeWest.Thesetwocivilizations,thoughbornindifferentgeographicalareasanddevelopedinaparallelway,their.maincore,theideaofConfuciusinChinaandtheideaofSocratesintheWest,coincideinessence.Boththetwoideasdealmorewithmanthanwiththeworld.
1.2.2.1ChineseCulture
1.2.2.1.1OriginofChineseCulture
SincetheQinDynasty,whichconqueredmanysmallwarringstatesaroundittocreateaunifiedChina,ChinahasexperiencedmanydynastiessuchastheTang,theYuan,theQing,etc.Throughouttheages,thedifferentethnicgroupswhichconstitutetheChinesenationcultivatedrelationswitheachother.Theyengagedincommerce,intermarriedandexchangedproducts,technologiesandaspectsoftheirrespectivecultures.ThusChineseculture,asitwere,thecomprehensiveexperienceandthecommondominatorofthesedifferentpeople.
InthehistoryofChina,thereexistedaClassicalAgeofindigenousphilosophicalthought,whichwastheageofLaoZi,Confucius.ThisagelefttoposteritythegreatheritageofLaoZi'snaturalisticconceptionoftheuniverseandhispoliticalphilosophyofnon一interference(Wu-wei)orlaissez一faire,theheritageofConfucius'shumanism,hisconceptionofthedignityandworthofman,histeachingoftheloveofknowledgeandtheimportanceofintellectualhonesty,andhiseducationalphilosophythat"witheducation,therewillbenoclasses".Confucianismalsostressedtheimportanceofloyaltytotherulerandfilialpietytoone'sparents,whichplayedagreatroleinthestabilityofthefeudalsociety.ConfucianismalsovaluedancienttraditionsandgavegreatrespecttothepastAgeofYao,Shun,Yu.ThismayhavefosteredtheconservativetendencyoftheChinesepeople.
BesidesConfucianism,therearetwoanotherinfluentialphilosophies:TaoismandBuddhism.Taoismadvocatesanescapefromsocialduties,andtheenjoymentoffreedom,quietudeaswellaspeace.Buddhismadvocatespeople'sgivingupalldesires.Peopleshoulddogoodthingssothattheymighthaveabetterlotintheirnextlives.Itsdoctrinesmakethebelieversobedientandtolerant,insteadoffightingagainstoppressionandexploitation,therefore,Buddhismhasbeentakenasatooltorulethepeopleaswellastheirminds.IthasprevailedinaverylongperiodofChinesefeudalsociety.Nowtherearestillmanypeoplebelievingin
BuddhisminChina.ThosethoughtsareconsideredastheoriginofChineseculture,amongwhich,ConfucianismisconsideredasthecoreofChineseculture.ThusthebasiccharacteristicsoftheChineseculturaltraditionaremoreorlessshapedbythemajorphilosophicalteachingsoftheClassicalAge.Thenitwashighlydevelopedinthefeudalperiod.Thecultureplayedanimportantpartinkeepingthecountryunified,andnowstilldeeplyandfirmlyembeddedinChineseculture.TheessenceorsoulofChinesetraditionalcultureisstudiedbyforeignpeopleandappliedintheirreallifeandbusinessactivitiesnowadays,whichisalsoaphenomenonofculturalexchanges,indicatingtheexcellenceofChineseculture.
1.2.2.1.2Confucianism-ValuesAstheMainFeatureof
ChineseCulture
Basedonnon-religiousvalues,ChinesecivilizationisquitedifferentfromthatofWesterncountries.ConfucianismasthemainstreamofChineseculture,alongwithTaoismandBuddhism,hasestablishedtheframeworkofChinesetraditionalcultureandalsohasbuiltthementalityoftheChinesepeople.WiththeconsolidationofthedoctrineofConfuciusandMencius,Confucianismgavestructuretotheideologicalsystemof"ModernConfucianism"throughtheHanDynasty,especiallyintheSongandMingDynasty."Benevolence"wasitscore,andethicsitsstandard.Adoptedandreinforcedbyvariouskingsandgovernorsduringthisperiod,thesystemwasappliedinChinesepolitics,economyandlaws,whosestrictdisciplinesformedtheindispensablecenterofChinesetraditionalAccordinglyclassicConfucianismbecamethetheoreticalpatternofthisculture,whoseultimateconcernwashowtobecomeanoblemanorgentleman,howtocultivateone'sattitudeoroutlook.
culture.
1.2.2.2WesternCulture
"TheWest"usedtoreferto"WesternorEuropeancountries",however,morerecentusagedefinestheWestas""EuropeandtheAmerica".Itischangedwiththedevelopmentoftheworld,especiallythedevelopmentofinternationalstatusoftheUnitedStates,forinthewholetwentiethcentury,theUnitedStateshasbecomethemostpowerfulofWesternnationsalthoughlocatedonanentirelyseparatecontinentandontheothersideoftheAtlanticfromEurope.Moreover,somecountriesonothercontinentsratherthanEurasia,suchasAustralia,arealsoconsideredpartofthemodernWest.AswearetalkingabouttranslationbetweenEnglishandChinese,wemainlyrefertotheEnglish-speakingcountriesinthewesternworld,suchasAmerica,Canada,andGreatBritain,whicharealsodominantorthemostpowerfulcountriesintheWest.Therefore,
whenwearetalkingaboutwesternculture,itmeansthecultureoftheabovewesterncountries.
Asforwesternculture,itsmainstreamisconsideredastheheritageofJudeo一ChristianandGreco一Romanandthebeliefindemocraticgovernment,individualrights,andfreeenterprise,amongwhich,theGreco一RomanelementandtheJudeo一Christianelementareconsideredtobemoreenduring.
Thewholewesternworldandwesternculturehavemainlyexperiencedfivestages.
SimilartoChina,italsohasaClassicAge,whichisconsideredastheoriginofwesternculture.Inwesternworld,theClassicAgereferstoboththeAncientGreekCivilizationandtheAncientRomanCivilization.ThethoughtofSocratescameintobeingintheperiodofAncientGreek.Thiscivilizationisfoundedontheidealsoffreedom,optimism,secularism,rationalism,theglorificationofbothbodyandmind,andahighregardforthedignityandworthoftheindividual.
FollowingthefallofRomanEmpireistheMiddleAgeofthewesternworld.Itissocalledbecauseitcamebetweenancienttimesandmoderntimes.Churchcultureisthemaincharacteristicofthisage,whichfocusesontheoriginalsin.
DuringtheperiodofRenaissance,manynewideaswereintroducedtoexpresstheinterestoftherisingbourgeoisieaswellastheattemptstogetridofconservatisminfeudalistEurope.Therefore,themaincharacteristicofthisperiodisperceivedasHumanism.
TheforthperiodofwesternworldisNeo-classicism,whosetypicalfeatureisconsideredto6erationalismandempiricism.CertainEuropeanwriterstriedtousecriticalreasontofreemindsfromprejudice,andthusitisalsocalledtheAgeofReason.
Romanticismisalsoanimportantperiodfortheformationofwesternculture,Fortworevolutionsinthisperiodbroughtnewideastotheculture.Frenchrevolutionestablishedbourgeoisdemocracywithitsslogansofliberty,equalityanduniversalbrotherhood,andwhat'smoreimportant-individualism,whichplayssuchanimportantroleintoday'swesternculture.Ontheotherhand,theindustrialrevolutionbroughtunforeseenchangestoeachindividualandsocietyasawhole.Theworldhasbeenchanged.Man'sthinkingwasfundamentallyaffected.ThetheoreticalgroundworkofcapitalismhasbeenlaidinAdamSmith'sbookTheWealthofNations(1776).
Westernculturefundamentallyformedasthewesternworldexperiencedthesefivechangingstages.Theseculturesmentionedabovearesharedbyalmostallthewesternworld,amongwhichtheauthortakeAmericaforexample.Americansemphasizefreecompetitionandindividualism.Veryoften,theemphasisonself-interestandfreedomoftheindividualcanruncountertocooperation,commitmentand
community.Thisvalueissharedbymostofwestsocieties.However,differentcountriesstillhavetheirownfeaturesintermsofculturesuchasdifferentcustomsandsoon.
Duetodifferentgeographicallocations,historicalbackgrounds,thereis。greatdifference。。culturebetweenChinaandthewesterncountries.However,itistheculturaldifferencethatquickensthepaceofculturalexchangesbetweenthetwo.
1.2.3CulturalTurn
1.2.3.1IntroductiontoCulturalTurn
1.2.3.1.1TheOriginandImplicationoftheCultural
Turn
In1990SusanBassnettandAndreLefevere,twotoweringtranslationstudyscholars,famouslyannouncedwhathadbeenunderwayforsometime:the"culturalturn"intranslationstu即.Inbrief,thetwoenvisagedthat"neithertheword,northetext,buttheculturebecomestheoperational`unit'oftranslation(LefevereandBassnett1990:8).ThecollectioninwhichtheirpieceappearedhasbeenhailedbyEdwinGentzler,oneoftheleadingsynthesizersoftranslationtheory,asthe"realbreakthroughforthefieldoftranslationstudy'’一whichistrueinthesensethatitepitomizedwhatissometimestermed"thecomingofage"ofthediscipline.Inthe1990s,translationstudyhasinmanywaysbeeninformedbythisculturalturnBassnettandLefevereannounced,which,asBassnetthasshown,includesareapprochmentbetweenculturalstudyandtranslationstudy,duetotheirrelatedeffortstounderstandtheprocessandstatusofglobalizationandnationalidentities.Thisfocus,togetherwiththeveritableexplosionofpostcolonialstudiesinliteratureinthelastfewyearsofthemillennium,hasentailedthattheculturalturnintranslationstudyincreasinglyhasbecomeinterculturalormulticultural.
Morespecifically,owingtothewide-ranginginterestinpostcolonialliteratureandcriticism,itmightbetermedthepostcolonialturn.Sowhentalkingaboutculturalturn,manywilltakepostcolonialismintoaccount.
AnotherthingtheoriginofculturalturniscloselyrelatedtoisItamarEven-Zohar'sPolysystemStudies.ItamarEven-Zohar'sPolysystemHypothesiswasfirstlydesignedmainlyastheframeworkfordescriptivestudyofliteratureandlanguageintheirculturalcontext.However,thistheoryhasmadeagreatimpactonthedisciplineoftranslationstudy.Hestatestheprospectin1979,"thecomplicatedquestionsofhowliteraturecorrelateswithlanguage,society,economy,politics,ideology,etc.,mayhere,withthePStheory,meritlesssimplisticandreductionisthypothesesthanotherwise".Atthattime,manyworksoftranslationfieldfocusedon
thelinguisticsystem.SoanumberofTranslationstudyscholarshavethereforetakena`culturalturn',focusingonthe`externalpolitics'oftranslatedliterature.Even-Zoharhimselfalsotooka"culturalturn"inhisworksandstudyinlate1980s.Sincethen,“culturalturn”hasoftenappearedininternationaltranslationstudy,whichmeansthereappearedaturnoftranslationstudytowardsculture,aconcussiontowards"linguisticturn"oftranslation.Actually,theputtingforwardof"culturalturn"isafavourableturn,foritleadstranslationstudytoanewandwideviewwhichcertainlydoesgoodtothestudyitself.Itallowsustounderstandtranslationasbeingrelatedtootheraspectsofcommunication.
Meanwhile,itdefinestranslationasaprocessofmediationwhichmovesthroughideologyandidentity.
Whiletalkingabout"culturalturn",feminismmustbementioned.Translationhastraditionallybeenlookeduponasasecondaryreproductiveactivity.Thisisassociatedwithmisogyniststereotypesofwomen,anditcanthereforebearguedthattranslationisdescribedingenderedterms,negativelyrelatedtowomen.Itisafactthat,historically,womenhavebeendiscouragedfromparticipationinthepublicsphere.Someturnedtotranslationasthehumblealternativetoauthorship.Insodoing,theystayedwithinacceptedparametersandformallyacknowledgedtheirinferiorityonlytochallengethenormandmaketheirvoiceheard.Infeministtheory,translationisviewedasproduction,notreproduction.Languageisameansofcreating}meaning,andmeaningiscreatedinordertorevealfeminineidentity.Feministtranslationredefinesthenotionsoffidelity,equivalenceandtheinvisibilityofthetranslator.Thesearedirectednotattheoriginalbutatthefeministproject,i.e.thereworkingofmeaningsoastoreversetheeffectsofmalesocialandculturaldomination.
Inthispaper,culturalturnintranslationmeanstranslationhastakena"culturalturn"from"linguisticturn".Theresearchoftranslationnolongeronlyfocusesonthetranslationoftheword,thesentence,whichareonlinguisticlevel,butfocusesonperceivingthetransferofculture.Sotheconcentrationhaschanged.Itsimplymeansdoingtranslationstudyinanotheraspectofview-culture.AsfortheculturalturnintranslationofinternationalbusinessEnglish,themaintopicofthispaper,Ithink,issuchanewangleofviewtoputtranslation,cultureandinternationalbusinessEnglishtogether.
1.2.3.1.2CulturalTurnandLinguisticTurn
Oftheabovetwoterms,obviouslyitisnotdifficulttotellthedifferenceordivisionofthetwoterms.Theyaretwodistinctpointsofviewtodotranslationstudy.Aswehavesaidatthebeginningofthepaper,translationstudyhasgonethroughthreemajorphasesinitsdevelopmentintoanacademicdiscipline:thepre-theoretical,thelinguistics-guided,
andthemufti-theoreticalperiod.Theperiodoflinguistic-guidedisexactlytheperiodwesaidlinguisticturnherewhenlinguisticresearchisthemainstreamoftranslationstudy.Inlinguistic-guidedperiod,linguisticturnhasbeentakingadominantroleintranslationstudy,focusingonthestudyofwords,sentencesfromtheviewofgrammarincludingsyntaxandmorphologyorfromtheviewoflinguistics.Herecomesthemufti-theoreticalperiodoftranslationstudy,inwhich"culturalturn"takesasignificantrole.Simplyspeaking,thesetwoaredifferentviewoftranslationstudy.However,theputtingforwardof"culturalturn"takestranslationstudytoawiderandbrandnewlevel.
1.2.3.2CulturalTurninTranslation
Withthedevelopmentofdescriptivelinguistics,sociallinguistics,psychology,aestheticsandculturology,especiallycross-culturalcommunication,translationstudyhastakenaturnfromstudyofmicrolinguisticstructuretostudyofmacrobackgroundoflanguageandculture,fromsingledirectionaswellassinglesubjecttomufti-level,mufti-angleaswellascross-subjectdirection.Translationtheoreticiansandtranslatorsnotonlyfocusonthedifferencesofwords,sentencesoftheoriginalandtranslatedlanguageintheirstu勿，butalsopaymuchattentiontotheculturalimplication,languagehabit,normofstyle,communicationobject,socialcustom,religionsandsoon.Translationtheoreticians,whileputtingforwardnewtranslationtheoriesandthoughts,arealsogoingintodeepinvestigationonculturelevel.Extendingtranslationstudytotheinterfaceofsocietyandcultureratherthanlinguisticsandtakingtranslationstudyintothebackgroundofglobalizationenableustoperceivetheinfluenceorrestrictionofsocietyandcultureinthecourseoftranslationinamacro-angle.Thisiswhat"culturalturn"generallymeans.BritishscholarandwriterTheoHermansaidthattheso-called"cultureturn"actuallyisemphasizingtheimpactofpower,ideologyandbackgroundofcontext.
1.2.3.2.1InevitabilityofCultureStudyinTranslation
Withthedevelopmentofglobalization,exchangesinvariousfields,suchasincommerceandeducationamongdifferentcountriesarebecomingmoreandmorefrequent.Inmodernsociety,culturalexchangesaregoingondirectlyorindirectlywithunprecedentedscales,contents,formsandmanners.Itcanbesaidthatthereisnofixedculturewithoutanyexternalinfluenceinmoderncountries.
Culturalexchangesbetweendifferentcountriesmustbeachievedbymeansoftranslation.Notranslation,noculturalexchanges.Thestudyofrelationshipbetweentranslationandculturecanenhanceculturalexchangessothatitcannotonlypromoteculturedevelopmentofeverycountrybutalsoenrichtheworldcultureandspeeditsdevelopment.
Ontheotherhand,duringthecourseoftranslation,generallyspeaking,thecontentexpressedinonelanguagecanbetranslatedaccuratelyintoanotherlanguage.However,theremustbeculturaldifferencesbetweennationsusingdifferentlanguages,whichbecometheobstacleintranslation.Fromthisview,oneaimoftranslationistoestablishculturalequivalencebetweensourcelanguageandtargetlanguage.Andamongthemanyequivalencesoftranslation,culturalequivalenceisoneofthemostessentialones.
EugeneA.Nidahaspointedoutthat,asforareallysuccessfultranslation,familiaritywiththetwoculturesismoreimportantthanfamiliaritywiththetwolanguages,forwordscanonlybemeaningfulincertainculturalbackground.
1.2.3.2.2.ImportanceofCulturalSensitivity
Culturaldifferencereferstotheinequalityofrightsbetweendifferentcultures.Duetotheexistenceofculturaldifference,tomakeagoodunderstandingandtransferringofculture,oneneedsahighculturalsensitivity.
Culturalsensitivityhasbeenanessentialrequirementforaqualifiedtranslator.Lackingofculturalsensitivityresultsinmanymisinterpretation.Thisarticlearguesthatuntranslatabilityispartoftheculturalincompatibilitybetweenthetwolanguagesinvolvedinranslation.Translationisborneoutofaneedtounderstandwhatisdifferentinaforeigncognitiveenvironmentanditisculturalalienationthatleadstobreakdownsincommunication.Culturalincomprehensibilityisastumblingblock,buttranslationtheoryalsolacksacogenttheoryofcultureaspartofcommunication.Amulticulturalappropriatenessofhumandiversityisindeedimportant,yetweshouldalsobesensitivetoculturaldifferences.Thereforeweshouldnotoverestimatetarget-audience'sfamiliaritywiththeuniquesource-languageculture.Culturalappropriatenessisessentialinfacilitatingassimilation,which,inturn,bridgesthecommunicationgapbetweenthesourceandtargettexts.Translationconfrontsculturaldifferencesbyemployingfeasibleandcoherentstrategiestoaccommodatethecultureofthesourcetext.Culturalawareness,identity,andsubsequentappropriatenessareneededtohelptarget-languagereadersinferassociationsandrelationshipintranslation.
1.2.3.2.3ThirdCulture
Translationisameansofcross-culturalcommunication.Nowadaysdifferentculturesarepenetratingintoeachother.Weshouldnotfailtonotethatculturalpeculiaritiesofculturaldifferencesarenolessimportantthanculturaluniversalsinculturalexchange.Itisbecauseculturalpeculiaritiesandculturaluniversalsexisttogetherthatwecanfindanappropriatethirdculturetomakeafinecombinationoftwodifferentcultures,thusthethirdcultureisbecominganimportantconceptincross-culturalmanagementnowadays.
Thirdculturescanbecreatedasafunctionofthein-depthinteractionbetweenpartners.Thecreationofthethirdcultureisparticularlyimportantforbusinesswhichseekstocreateapartnershipwithforeign
business(Trompenaars,1993).Incross-culturalpartnershipbuilding,itisnotthatoneculturedominatesovertheotherone.Instead,partiesfrombothculturesneedtoworktogethertocreateathirdculturewhichtranscendstheoriginalsandworksforbothcultures.Itisnotasimplecompromise,butanewwayofthinkingaboutanddoingthingswhicharecompatiblewitheachoftheoriginals.Itworkseffectivelywiththetechnologyoftheorganization.Thus,somescholarspointsoutthatmeaningfulandeffectivethirdculturescanbeconstructedonlywhenthetrans-culturalactivitiesareinthepartnersstage.Athirdculturewillappearinevitablyinthecourseofculturaladjustment.
ChapterIIITranslationandCulture
1.3.1RelationshipbetweenTranslationandCulture
1.3.1.1TranslationandCulture
Thepurposeandcharacteristicsoftranslationaretoexchangeideasandculture.Differentcountriesandareas,differentnationsorcommunitieshopetounderstandeachotherwellandlearnfromeachotherthroughexchanges,thustherequirementfortranslationoccurs.Cultureisthespecialcreationofacertainnationinacertainperiodandspecificgeographicalenvironment,thusdifferentnationshavedifferentcultures.Culturetakesonspecialfeaturesofthenation.Itisethnocentric.
Meanwhile,translationistheresultaswellaswitnessofculturalexchanges.Therelationshipbetweentranslationandculturehasbeenahotissuediscussedininternationaltranslationfield.Howtotreatanddealwithcultureinthecourseoftranslationhasbecomeanimportanttopicinbothaspectsoftheoryandpractice.Translationpromotesunderstandingamongdifferentcountriesandnations.Intranslation,theprincipleof"seekingthecommongroundwhilereservingdifferences"shouldbefollowed.
Translationisregardedasacommunicativebehavior.Itisthebridgeofcommunicationbetweentwolanguages.Itaimsatthepresentationofthecontentsandcultureofthesourcetextinthetargettext.Sothecourseoftranslation,asitis,acourseofintroductiontothecultureofthesourcelanguage.Whileatranslatorservesasanintermediaryinthecourseofcultureintroductionandculturetransfer.Itisbymeansoftranslationthatcultureofacertainnationcanbelearnedbypeoplefromotherpartoftheworld.Meanwhile,thecontrastbetweendifferentculturesmadebythetranslatorshouldbeprofoundandmeticulous,forheorsheisactuallyconfrontedwithtwocompletelydifferentcultures.Fromthisview,weknowthatinterlingualtranslationisakindofculturaltranslation.Sincetranslationinvolveslanguageaswellasculture,thestudyofrelationshipbetweentranslationandcultureisabsolutelynecessary.
Whenstartingaprocessoftranslation,itimpliesyouareapproachinganotherculture.Translationrevealsthepowerthatoneculturecanexertoveranother.Translationisnotmerelytheworkononetextmadeequivalenttoanother,butratheracomplexprocessofrewritingtheoriginal,whichrunsparallelbothtotheoverallviewofthelanguage,andtotheinfluencesandthebalanceofpowerthatexistsbetweentwocultures.
1.3.1.2CultureandLanguage
Inordertodeeplycomprehendtheactivityoftranslation,weneedtoclarifywhatwemeanbythetermsoflanguageandculture,andtopointouttherelationshipsbetweencultureandlanguage.Commentingonthisrelationship,linguistGaryWitherspoonwrote:"Ifwelookatculturefromalinguisticpointofview,wegetaone-sidedviewofculture.Ifwelookatlanguagefromaculturalpointofview,wearesocloselyrelatedtoeachother.aone-sidedviewoflanguage."Thisstatementdistinctlypointsoutcultureandlanguage
"Languageisgenerallybelievedtobetheessentialinstrumentofethnicexpression,aviaductforthebeliefs,customs,rituals,andbehaviorswhichconstituteculturalidentity.Itisseenastheembodimentofhumanthoughtandtheshaperofhumanaction.Formost,languageisinextricablylinkedtotheveryessenceofhumanbeingandofbelongingtoaspecificculturalgroup,"writesDr.AliciaPousada,oftheUniversityofPuertoRico.Languageandcultureareinseparable,andboththetwoarelinkedtotheessenceofhumanbeing.
Sincecultureincludesthewholeofhumanactivities,language,ofcourse,shouldfallwithinthescopeofculture.Languageisregardedasthekeystoneandthecarrieroftheculture,whilecultureisprofoundlyembeddedinlanguage.Thedevelopmentofformsandcontentsinlanguagerepresentstheevolutionoftheculture.Itisimpossibletoacquire,transmit,inheritanddevelopculturewithoutlanguage.Sofromthisview,wecansaythatlanguageistheonlywayfortheacquisitionanddevelopmentofculture.Weshouldtreatlanguageandcultureasanorganicwhole.Languagetoculturecanbecomparedtohearttobody.
Withoutdeepunderstandingoftheculturecarriedbylanguage,therecertainlywillbenodeepunderstandingoflanguage.Thestudyofrelationshipbetweencultureandlanguagecanbecarriedouteitherinonelanguageorbetweentwolanguages.Inrespectofthecontrastbetweentwolanguages,itisinvolvedintranslation.
Peoplemustexchangetheirthoughtsduringthecourseofculturecreationanddevelopment.Languageisthemostimportanttoolforpeopletocommunicates.Meanwhile,asthedirectrepresentationofthoughts,languageisalsothecarrierofinformationandknowledge.Theimplements,systemsandconceptsofanation,whichbelongtopartsofculture,mustleaveprofoundmarkinginthelanguageusedbythisnation.
Languagereflectscultureandisaffectedbyculture.ChineseandEnglishculturesarequitedifferentfromeachother,whichareincludedandexpressedintheirrespectivelanguages.Thetwolanguageshavebecomethecarrierandcontainerofthetwocultures.Meanwhile,thetwoculturesarethesoilinwhichthetwolanguagesexist.Differentlanguagesproducedifferentculture.Whatevercultureitmaybe,onceitbeginstocomeintoexistence,itmustbespread,exchanged,continuedanddeveloped,especiallyinthecourseofglobalizationnowadays.Whenthecultureiscarriedoutbylanguage,itcanbeseeneverywhereespeciallyinspokenandwrittenlanguages.
Moreover,learningalanguagedoesnotonlymeanmasteringthespelling,pronunciation,andgrammar.Italsomeanslearningthewaytoreviewtheworldasnativespeakers,inwhichtheirLanguagesreflecttheirownideas,beliefs,customs,andbehaviorsofthatsociety.Thuslearningalanguageisinseparablefromlearningthecultureofit.Soasforatranslator,heorsheshouldknowforeignculturesaswellasthecultureofhisownpeople.Moreover,atranslatorshouldmakecontinuouscomparisonsbetweenthetwoculturesbecausetranslationequivalenceinitsverysenseshouldbematchedinmeanings,functions,scopesandfeelingsinthetwocultures.
1.3.1.3Translation,CultureandLanguage
Translation,althoughdoesnothaveahistoryaslongaslanguageandculture,itlastsfortwothousandyears.Thesametolanguageandculture,translationalsohasmanydefinitions.However,theconnotationofrealtranslationisthesame-transferofculturebetweendifferentlanguages.Translationismadeupoftwoessentialparts-languageandculture.Thedevelopmentoftranslationitselfhasexperienced"linguisticturn"and"culturalturn".Anexcellenttranslationversionmusttakeboththesetwoaspectsintoaccount.Thetransferofinformationonlyonlanguagelevelisnotenough.Apparently,atranslatormustfacetwodifferentlanguages,whilethesetwodifferentlanguagesseparatelybelongtotwodifferentculturalsystems.Heisinthefaceofnotonlytwolanguagesbutalsotwocultures,whichmeansatranslatorshouldbenotonlybilingual,butalsobicultural.Therefore,anemployabletranslatormustbearealculturalperson.Thatistosay,hecanbeabletousethetwolanguagesexpertly;moreover,hemustbefamiliarwiththedifferencesofculturalbackground,customs,habits,politicalsystemsandfaithsofpeopleofthesetwolanguages.Adoctor,nomatterhowbrilliantheis,hemustattachimportancetothecloserelationbetweenheartandbody,sothathecanmakeasuccessintheoperation.Itisthesametoatranslator.Ifheonlypaysattentiontothedifferencebetweenthetwolanguagesandneglecttheculturaldifference,histranslationmustbeafailure.
Translationisaverycomplexinterlingualactivity,whileinterlingual
translatinisactuallyaculturaltranslation.Thestudyoftranslationandcultureisonthebasisofstudyoflanguageandculture,especiallythestudyofcontrastbetweentwoormorelanguagesandcultures.Withoutlanguage,itwouldbedifficulttoturnthecross-culturalcommunicationintoreality.Itcannotdepartfromtransferoflanguages;howeveritisfarmorethansimpletransferoflanguages.Onereasonisthatlanguagereflectscultureandisrestrictedbyculture.Tomakeasuccessfultransferoflanguages,afullmasteryofboththetwolanguagesandthetwoculturesarerequired.Ininternationaltranslationfield,translationstudyhastakenaturnfromtransferoflanguagestotransferofcultures.Manyscholarscalltranslationacross-culturalcommunicativeactivity.Somescholarsuseinterculturalcommunication,orinterculturalcooperation,oracculturationtorefertotranslation.Andthereforeanewsubjectofculturaltranslationstudyemerges,whichtalksabouttherelationshipamonglanguage,cultureandtranslationviatheachievementsoflinguistics,culturologyandtranslatology.Suchculturaltranslationstudyprovidesanewangleofviewfortranslationresearchandmakesitmoreprofound.
1.3.2TwoAnglesofView
Howtodealwithcultureisaproblemofcommunicationandunderstanding.Asforrelationshipbetweentranslationandculture,therearetwoanglesofview-microscopicalandmacroscopical.
Themicroscopicalangleofviewreferstohowtranslationimpactsacountry'scultureandwhatimpactitmakestotheculture.Howisoneculturetransferredtoanother?Howdothetwoculturescombinewitheachother?Theseallareissuesfromamicroscopicalview.Culturalexchangesarebi-directional,duringwhichtwoculturesimpactandrestricteachother.
Themacroscopicalangleofviewreferstowhichculturalelementsimpactandrestricttranslation.Translationmustovercomeobstaclesinbothlanguageandculture.Howdoestranslationovercometheobstacleswhileachievingthegoalofculturalexchanges?Howtheculturalelementsarerepresentedintargettext?Howmisunderstandingwilloccurduetofailureofculturetransfer?Theseallareissuesfrommacroscopicalmew.1.3.3TwoSteps一TranslationinTermsofCultureGenerallyspeaking,tosettletheproblemofculturaldifferenceinthe，0eOen，n刀.匕at卜曰courseoftranslationusuallyneedstwosteps-understandingexpressing,bothofwhichareessentialandofgreatimportanceincourseoftranslation.Actually,translationisacombinationofthesesteps.Tomakeasuccessfultranslation,boththetwostepsmustdisposedwell.
1.3.3.1Understanding
Abetterunderstandingoftheoriginalcontextisthefoundationoftranslation.TherewillbemoredifficultiesforusintranslationfromEnglishtoChinesethanfromChinesetoEnglish.WeChinesepeoplealmosthavenotroubleunderstandingboththeChineselanguageandculture.ButasforEnglishlanguageandculture,itisanothersituation.First,wearenotasfamiliarwiththelanguageasourmothertongue.Second,wehaven'tgotasdeepanunderstandingofwesterncultureasChineseculture.Besides,lackingofprofessionalknowledgewillobviouslyhinderthetranslatorfromacquiringacompleteandprofoundconnotationoftheoriginaltext.
篇五：文化转向论适用于什么翻译领域
龙源期刊网http://www.qikan.com.cn
论翻译的文化转向
作者：张蕊来源：《群文天地》2013年第01期
摘要：庞德《华夏集》译作对英美诗歌所带来的影响是不可估量的，而多年来许多专家学者对《华夏集》的翻译及艺术造诣争议也是不可否认的。传统的翻译研究已经无法解释这种现象的产生。因此，笔者以《华夏集》为例，探讨了当代翻译研究的文化转向以及从比较文学角度进行《华夏集》翻译研究的合理性。
关键词：翻译研究；文化转向；比较文学；《华夏集》
《华夏集》，一部被誉为“英文诗之经典”“英美现代派诗歌的主要作品之一”的译作，摒弃了维多利亚时期的浮夸之风，掀起了“意象主义”革命。然而，正是这样一部力作，在享有众多赞誉的同时也招致了许多专家学者的诟病。不少学者认为《华夏集》的翻译存在许多误译漏译甚至是创译的地方，与其称之为“译作”，不如称之为作者本人的“创作”。尽管存在诸多争议，《华夏集》仍然在英美诗坛占有重要地位。艾兹拉.庞德，一个不懂中国汉字的外国翻译家，仅凭借着对中国文化的浓厚兴趣以及东方学者弗诺罗萨的笔记，就译出了这部译作。它的成功不得不使我们重新探讨翻译的原则以及翻译研究的方向。
传统的翻译研究认为，翻译活动就是在以一种语言为主导的基础上的两种语言间的转换。因此，译者所遵循的最根本准则就是在忠于原作的前提下将原文流畅地使用目标语表达出来。而翻译研究也自然而然地侧重原文与译文一致性的对比上。对于《华夏集》的翻译研究，有不少专家学者只关注文本间文字层面的对应，认为庞德的译文不忠于原文，存在许多误译漏译，甚至是创译的地方，为此否认庞德译作所取得的成绩。然而，中国比较文学学会教学研究会副会长谢天振在谈到中国文学作品译介到国外时举了这样一个例子：
由杨宪益、戴乃迭夫妇翻译的《红楼梦》一直是深受国内翻译界推崇的中译英经典译作，但是，由谢天振指导的一位博士生在对一百七十多年来十几种《红楼梦》英译本进行了深入研究，并到美国大学图书馆进行实地考察、收集数据后发现，与英国汉学家霍克思和闵福德翻译的《红楼梦》相比，杨译本在读者借阅数、研究者引用数，以及发行量、再版数等方面，都远逊于霍译本（王研，2002）。
这个例子充分说明了，翻译单纯地以是否忠于原作，使用精准的语言为原则是不能实现将一国文学成功地译介到另一个国家的。同样，翻译研究单纯地探讨语言间的转换是片面的，无法推进翻译进步的。这就解释了为什么一个不懂中国汉字的翻译家所译的《华夏集》在误译漏译创译的情况下仍能将中国文化推广传播到国外并产生巨大影响，而中国翻译家字字推敲所译的中国古诗却无人问津。
龙源期刊网http://www.qikan.com.cn
那么，究竟翻译研究要有怎样的转向，才能全面科学地品评译作，真正地推动翻译的发展呢？在西方，翻译研究已经经历了两次转向：语言学转向和文化转向。即翻译从一般层面的语言学理论研究深入到文化研究；而比较文学的兴起和发展，推动了翻译研究的文化转向。越来越多的比较文学学者开始干预翻译研究活动。要知道，比较文学研究和翻译研究共同的媒介就是语言，比较文学与翻译两者都是在以语言为基础上的跨文化研究。因此，翻译的发展要实现从语言翻译上升到文学翻译的高度。而翻译研究也应从比较文学的角度去探讨翻译活动。
庞德在TheLittleReview发表的《法国诗人》一文中曾提到，“意象可译，音律几乎不可译。一部外国作品一旦被被译为本国文字后，某些特质将会变得不再明显，重要。（Yip：7071）”“而准确地将意象翻译出来，则需要翻译家了解原作者的文化传统，民族意识，同一性，联合性。”（Yip：78）由此可见，艾兹拉.庞德在翻译的时候注重原诗中情感的表达，意象的描写，对诗的音律，形式并不刻意追求。他正是抓住了原诗中所带有的文化内涵，在翻译中集中体现中国诗所特有的意象及文化内涵，才是译诗大获成功的。
从庞德译作的成功，我们可以看到，翻译并不是简单地两种语言间的转换，而是要了解原文本所带有的文化内涵，注重翻译的文化转向。翻译研究亦是如此。当下许多研究者对庞德《华夏集》译诗的评论仅从本国固有的文化模子出发，从单一维度去分析译诗，品评译诗，从而得出结论，这种评论是片面的，不科学的。因为翻译是从一种语言到另一种语言的跨越，从一种文化到另一种文化的跨越，从一种固有文化模子到另一种固有文化模子的跨越，从单一文化模子来欣赏译诗必定会出现疏漏。因此，关于《华夏集》的翻译研究应从比较诗学的角度出发，先找出原诗与译诗的共通性与异质性，进而在共通性与异质性的各个维度去分析译诗，从而得出结论，才是科学的全面的。
参考文献：
[1]EzraPound.Cathay[M].London：ChiswickPress，1915.
[2]Wai-limYip.EzraPound'sCathay[M].Princeton：PrincetonUniversityPress，1969.
[3]王研.谢天振：如何向世界告知中华文化[N].辽宁日报，2002-05-09.
[4]王宁.比较文学与翻译研究的文化转向[J].中国翻译.2009（5）.
[5]谢天振.当代西方翻译研究的三大突破和两大转向[J].四川外语学院学报，2003（5）.
[6]叶维廉.比较诗学[M].台北：东大图书公司，1983.
（作者单位：河北农业大学研究生学院）
篇六：文化转向论适用于什么翻译领域
从勒菲维尔“文化转向”看翻译中的文化因素
摘要：自20世纪下半叶以来，“文化转向”的翻译研究发展的风生水起。在安德烈·勒菲维尔的带领下，各翻译理论家及翻译家越来越重视翻译中的文化因素和意识形态问题。同时，他们也从翻译当中注意到了“文化霸权”现象。本文在分析翻译实践中的文化因素的同时，也在反思不同文化间的交流以及译者在其中发挥的作用及地位。
关键词：文化转向;勒菲维尔;意识形态;翻译
一、翻译研究的转向
20世纪下半叶以来，当代西方翻译理论研究先后经历了两次转向，即语言学转向和文化转向。而事实上这也实现了三大根本性突破：首先，翻译研究开始从一般层面上的语言间的对等研究深入到了对翻译行为本身的深层探究。其次，翻译研究不再局限于翻译文本本身的研究，而是把目光投射到了译作的生产和消费过程。最后，翻译研究不再把翻译看成是语言转换间的孤立片段，相反，它把翻译放到一个宏大的文化语境中去审视（谢天振，2003）。近些年来，文化转向也在国内成了炙手可热的研究方向，越来越多的人更加关注文化在翻译中所起的作用。
如今，“忠实”已经不再是译者在译文中追求的唯一目标，源语和目标语间的文化差异更是译者关注的重点。苏珊·巴斯内特（SusanBassnett）曾表示，“翻译是根植于有关文化深处的一种行为，是文化内或文化间的交流活动。翻译不是两种语言间字对字的对等，它是两种文化功能上的对等。”（谭载喜，2004）翻译是沟通不同文化的桥梁，译者在翻译实践时应该更加关注作品的文化内涵，失去文化内涵的作品索然无味，也会让读者一头雾水。
二、勒菲维尔的“文化转向”
上世纪70年代，伊塔玛·埃文-佐哈（ItamarEven-Zohar）提出多元系统理论，这为翻译文化研究学派奠定了基础。1976年，佐哈在卢汶会议上提交的《翻译文学在文学多元系统中的地位》论文标志着文化学派成立（谢天振，218）。
90年代，安德烈·勒菲维尔（AndreLefevere）提出了翻译研究中的“文化转向”问题。他认为翻译不能只局限于文字表面，而应当把文化因素考虑到，应当注重目标语文化的问题。不同民族的文化各有特色，每种文化都有与其他文化相容的地方，也有与其他文化相互排斥的地方。译者在翻译过程中要充分发挥译者的主体性，将文本翻译为适合译语读者的目标文本，尽量扫清译语读者的文化盲区，使译文能吸引更多的读者。
勒菲维尔表示“翻译即改写，即创造另一个文本形象的一种形式。翻译创造了原文、原作者、原文的文学和文化的形象。一切改写，不论其意图如何，都反映某种思想意识和诗学。因此，翻译实际上也是译者对文本的摆布，使文学以一定的方式在特定的社会里产生作用。”（郭建中，159）勒菲维尔始终坚持从文化的角度来看待翻译研究问题，他认
为翻译无法脱离文化而独立进行。同时，他强调了意识形态、赞助人和诗学在翻译中所起的作用。他认为，译者总会受到他所处时代文化和当时在接受与文化中占主导地位的诗学的影响，其意识形态会在翻译过程中潜移默化的反映在译文当中。同时，译者的作品想要出版，赞助人在这其中又发挥着至关重要的作用，从另一角度来看，赞助人在很大程度上与影响译者的意识形态息息相关。
简而言之，勒菲维尔（1992：14）想要表达的是“翻译不是在真空中进行的。译者作用于特定时间的特定文化当中。译者对自己及自己文化的理解是影响他们翻译方法的诸多因素之一。”译者的意识形态将会影响着翻译的进行，也就是说翻译与影响译者意识形态的文化不可分割而独立存在。
三、关注翻译实践中的文化转向
翻译是两种文化沟通的桥梁，是文化交流的途径，而这种交流实际上是不同民族意识形态的碰撞。也就是说，意识形态影响着译者在翻译过程中的策略选择：是直截了当，还是曲达其义;是“剜鼻削眼”，还是另起炉灶（王东风，2003）。不同策略的选择也会反过来影响到民族文化的交流效果。翻译中不可忽视的就是不同民族间的文化因素，没有文化内涵的译作就像是没有灵魂的行尸走肉，它传达的只是原作表层意义，至于深层文化的表达却让目的语读者一头雾水。以下，将以林纾译作《黑奴吁天录》片段以及英文电影名汉译来分析其中的文化现象。
（一）林纾译作《黑奴吁天录》片段
勒菲维尔曾表示过，“一种诗学的功能性组成部分显然紧密地附着来自这种诗学本身之外部领域的意识形态影响，因而它可以在文学体系的环境中由意识形态的力量产生出来。”（王宁，175）诗学也是受到意识形态的影响的，这种意识形态是译者受他那个时代所处环境影响自然而然产生的，译者的作品也就不可避免的反映著译者的意识形态。在意识形态的作用下，诗学究竟是什么？它是如何体现在译文中的呢？诗学有两个因素组成：一个是文学手段、文学样式、主题、原型人物、情节和象征的等一系列文学要素;另一个是观念，即在社会系统中，文学起什么作用，或应起什么作用（勒菲维尔，1992：2627）。诗学在译文中的体现可以以林纾翻译的《黑奴吁天录》为例。
原文：George：“I’llfightformylibertytothelastbreathIbreathe.Yousayyourfathersdidit;ifitwasrightforthem，itisrightforme！”
译文：“盖吾之自由，必与持压力者抵死争之，必胜而后已。且美国之自由，美国同英伦力争而得。今吾之自由，必当力与美人争之。”
林纾是古文家，喜欢用古义文法翻译，但他的语言也不是传统意义上的古文，比古文自由的多。受到晚清先进西方思想以及新文化运动“反文言”文学革命的影响，他的翻译作品中也有不少白话文、外来语和欧化句式，例如上述译文中“自由”、“美国”都是晚清时期才以现有意义出现在中国的。林纾以古文的基本形式较为自由地将源语转化为目的
语，很大程度上他是想唤起晚清士大夫们的认知。事实上，译文的第二句是林纾的变译，因为在中国遭受列强压迫之时，他通过在译文中体现美国所获自由是美国人与英国人力争的结果，以此，他希望能唤起中国人的爱国之情，号召中国人民团结起来顽强与帝国主义斗争，救亡图存。
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